Section 2.2: Nonprobability Sampling

Fundamentals of Social Statistics by Adam J. McKee

A nonprobability sample is a sample drawn by a method that does not use randomization as a component of selecting participants.  In this general category of sampling techniques, the common thread is that the probability of selecting a particular individual from the population is not known.  This violates the basic assumption of probability samples that each individual has an equal and independent chance of being selected.

A nonprobability sample is a type of sample that is collected without the utilization of randomization in the process of selecting its participants. In other words, when a researcher uses nonprobability sampling techniques, the choice of individuals to be part of the sample is not made randomly. This characteristic sets nonprobability sampling apart from its counterpart, probability sampling, where random selection ensures that every individual within the population has a calculable chance of being chosen. In nonprobability sampling, the central theme is the absence of this calculability; the odds of any given individual from the population being selected for the study are not known, and thus not all members have an equal opportunity to be included.

The absence of random selection in nonprobability samples raises a critical issue. It contravenes the foundational premise of probability samples, which states that each individual within the population must have an equal and independent chance of being selected. This fundamental equality is crucial for making statistical inferences that are generalizable to the broader population. Without this, the sample can be skewed, leading to potentially biased or unrepresentative results. In probability sampling, the use of random selection methods minimizes such biases, thereby enhancing the sample’s reliability and validity.

Despite the lack of randomization and the potential for bias, nonprobability samples are widely used in research for various reasons. For one, they are often more convenient and less time-consuming to implement than probability samples. In some instances, especially in exploratory or qualitative research, the objective might not be to generalize findings to an entire population, but rather to gain deeper insights or understanding about a specific group or issue. Here, the advantages of speed and accessibility might outweigh the disadvantages of potential bias.

However, the limitations of nonprobability samples must not be underestimated. Because the selection of participants is not random, these samples are subject to selection bias, and the results are not readily generalizable to a broader population. The lack of statistical representativeness means that findings derived from nonprobability samples have limited applicability and should be interpreted cautiously. Researchers often acknowledge these limitations in their studies and recommend subsequent investigations using probability sampling techniques to validate or extend their findings.

In summary, nonprobability samples are characterized by a non-random selection process where the chance of any individual being chosen is unknown. While this violates the core tenets of probability sampling, making the results less generalizable and potentially biased, nonprobability sampling still has its place in the research landscape. It offers advantages such as convenience and speed, particularly useful in exploratory or qualitative studies where generalization is not the primary aim. Nonetheless, the limitations associated with nonprobability sampling make it essential for researchers to approach the results derived from such methods with due caution.

A Note on Statistical Assumptions

The discussion about nonprobability and probability sampling methods is closely linked to the realm of statistical assumptions that researchers must consider when designing and interpreting a study. Statistical assumptions are conditions or prerequisites that a dataset must meet to justify the use of certain statistical tests or modeling techniques. In probability sampling, the assumption of randomness allows researchers to use a range of statistical tools to make inferences about the larger population from which the sample is drawn. These tools rely on the probability theory to calculate errors, confidence intervals, and levels of significance, among other parameters. The fundamental assumption here is that the sample accurately represents the broader population, thus enabling generalization.

In contrast, nonprobability samples often violate these statistical assumptions, especially the requirement for random selection. This poses challenges for researchers when they aim to apply statistical tests or models that assume a random distribution. For instance, the absence of randomness in a nonprobability sample could lead to selection bias, affecting the validity of any statistical inferences made from that sample. The assumption of equal and independent chance of selection, crucial in probability sampling, is discarded here. Hence, traditional statistical measures such as confidence intervals or significance levels become less meaningful, as they are predicated on the randomness that nonprobability sampling lacks.

Given this, it’s crucial for researchers using nonprobability samples to be aware of the limitations regarding statistical assumptions and to approach data analysis cautiously. Alternative statistical methods that do not rely heavily on the assumption of randomness may be more appropriate in these cases. Additionally, the findings from nonprobability samples should be considered more as preliminary or exploratory, rather than conclusive. In reports or publications, it’s good practice to clearly state the sampling method used and discuss the potential implications on statistical validity, to ensure a transparent and honest interpretation of the data.


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Last Modified:  09/20/2023

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