***Section 3.3: The Nature of Reality is a DRAFT Version ***
So far, we have focused on the differences between societies, but now we will delve into the origins of society and how sociologists perceive social interaction. From the sociological perspective, the nature of reality refers to the understanding that our perceptions and interpretations of the world are socially constructed, shaped by shared meanings, cultural frameworks, and the interplay between subjective experiences and objective social structures.
In 1966, sociologists Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann wrote a book called “The Social Construction of Reality” (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). They argued that humans create society through their interactions with each other, a process they referred to as “habitualization.” Habitualization is the idea that any action repeated frequently becomes a pattern, which can then be easily performed again in the future with minimal effort (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). We not only build our society but also accept it as it is because others have created it before us. In essence, society is a “habit.”
For instance, your school exists as a school, not just as a building, because you and others agree that it is a school. If the school is older than you, it was established through the agreement of others before you. In a way, the nature of reality is that it exists by consensus, both previous and current. This process is called “institutionalization,” which means embedding a convention or norm into society. It is essential to remember that although an institution is socially constructed, it is still very real.
Another way to understand the nature of reality is through W.I. Thomas’s well-known “Thomas theorem,” which states, “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences” (Thomas & Thomas, 1928). This means that people’s behavior can be influenced by their subjective perception of reality rather than objective reality. For example, a teenager who is frequently labeled as an “overachiever,” “player,” or “bum” might eventually embody that label even if it was not initially part of their character.
Like Berger and Luckmann’s concept of habitualization, Thomas suggests that our moral codes and social norms result from “successive definitions of the situation.” Sociologist Robert K. Merton called this idea a “self-fulfilling prophecy” (Merton, 1948). Merton explains that even a false belief can become true if people act upon it. For example, a “bank run” occurs when people mistakenly believe that their bank is about to go bankrupt. Due to this false notion, they rush to withdraw all their money at once. Since banks rarely have that much cash on hand, the bank does indeed run out of money, making the customers’ prophecy come true. In this case, reality is shaped by an idea. So, the nature of reality can be seen as being more about consensus than any sort of objective reality.
Symbolic interactionists offer another perspective for viewing the nature of reality as one of social construction. Focused on the symbols (such as language, gestures, and artifacts) that people use to interact, this approach examines how people interpret these symbols in everyday interactions. For example, we might feel scared when we see someone holding a gun, but not if the person turns out to be a police officer.
Interactionists also acknowledge that language and body language reflect our values. Learning a foreign language reveals that not every English word can be easily translated into another language. The same applies to gestures. While Americans might interpret a “thumbs up” as meaning “great,” in Germany, it means “one,” and in Japan, it means “five.” Thus, our construction of reality is influenced by our symbolic interactions.
Roles and Status
In our day-to-day lives, we exhibit a variety of behaviors depending on the situations we find ourselves in. These patterns of behavior, known as roles, are associated with a person’s social status (Merton, 1957). For instance, as you read this text, you are playing the role of a student. However, you may also take on other roles in your life, such as “daughter,” “neighbor,” or “employee.” Each of these roles corresponds to a different social status.
Sociologists define status as the combination of responsibilities and benefit a person experiences based on their rank and role in society (Merton, 1957). Some statuses are ascribed, meaning that they are assigned to you without your choice, such as being a son, an elderly person, or a female. Other statuses, called achieved statuses, are earned through your actions and choices, like becoming a high school dropout, a self-made millionaire, or a nurse. As a daughter or son, you hold a different status compared to when you are a neighbor or an employee. A single individual can have multiple roles and statuses at the same time. Even a single status, like being a “student,” comes with a complex role set or a collection of roles associated with it (Merton, 1957). It is essential to remember that status refers to one’s position in the social hierarchy, while role signifies the expected behavior of someone holding a particular status.
Sometimes, fulfilling the expectations of a single role can become overwhelming, leading to role strain. Take the role of a parent, for example. Parents have numerous responsibilities, such as cooking, cleaning, driving, problem-solving, and providing moral guidance, among others. When the demands of a role become too much, individuals may experience stress and difficulty in fulfilling their duties.
Moreover, a person can face role conflict when one or more of their roles have contradictory expectations (Merton, 1957). A classic example of role conflict occurs when a parent also has a full-time career. Balancing work and family responsibilities can be challenging, as both roles often compete for time and attention. For instance, when there is a deadline at the office, but a sick child needs to be picked up from school, which responsibility takes priority? Or when you are striving for a promotion at work, but your children want you to attend their school play, which do you choose? Similarly, being a college student can conflict with being an employee, an athlete, or even a friend. The roles we take on in our lives significantly impact our decisions and shape our identities, thus helping to define the nature of reality.
Presentation of Self
When studying human behavior, it is impossible to look inside a person’s mind and directly observe the roles they play. Instead, we can only examine their behavior or role performance, which refers to how a person expresses their role (Goffman, 1959). Erving Goffman, a renowned sociologist, proposed the idea that people are like actors on a stage, performing different roles in various situations. He named this concept dramaturgy and suggested that we use “impression management” to present ourselves to others in a way we wish to be perceived (Goffman, 1959).
Each situation we encounter is like a new scene in a play, and our behavior adapts based on who is present. For example, consider how you interact with your coworkers, grandparents, and a blind date. Although you may not consciously change your personality, these different individuals likely see distinct aspects of you.
The setting, similar to a stage in a play, also plays a significant role in our behavior. When hosting a dinner party, you take on the role of a host, providing food, seating, and managing the cleanup afterward. In contrast, your friends assume the roles of guests, respecting your property and adhering to any rules you establish. For a smooth social interaction, it is essential that all participants share a common understanding of their roles.
Impression management, a key component of symbolic interactionism, helps us create the desired image of ourselves in different situations (Goffman, 1959). For instance, a judge in a courtroom uses props such as a robe and gavel to convey an impression of fairness, seriousness, and authority. People entering the courtroom are expected to respect the scene and behave accordingly. Similarly, our choice of clothing, hairstyle, and other aspects of our appearance can significantly impact others’ perceptions of us.
Goffman’s dramaturgy expands on Charles Cooley’s concept of the looking-glass self (Cooley, 1902). Cooley argued that we develop our self-image based on how we believe others perceive us. We imagine how we appear to others and react to their responses. We choose our clothing, hairstyle, makeup, and even fragrances with the intention of influencing others’ impressions of us. If we receive the desired reaction, we feel good about our presentation.
Cooley further suggested that our sense of self is built upon this process: we imagine how we look to others, draw conclusions from their reactions, and then create our personal self-image (Cooley, 1902). In this sense, people’s responses to us serve as a mirror reflecting our self-perception.
Role Conflict and Role Strain
Throughout our lives, we are required to fulfill multiple roles and maintain numerous statuses, which may lead to role conflict and role strain (Goode, 1960). In this section, we will delve into the challenges individuals face when balancing these various responsibilities, as well as discuss coping strategies and the consequences of failing to manage these roles effectively. Additionally, we will explore how societal changes and evolving norms impact the roles people play and the ways in which they navigate these complexities.
Role conflict occurs when the expectations and demands associated with one role conflict with those of another role (Goode, 1960). For example, a working parent may experience role conflict when they must decide between staying late at work to complete an important project or attending their child’s school play. This dilemma often arises because fulfilling the responsibilities of one role may compromise the other, leading to feelings of stress and frustration.
On the other hand, role strain refers to the tension and stress experienced within a single role due to overwhelming expectations and demands (Goode, 1960). For instance, a student may experience role strain when they are required to complete multiple assignments, study for exams, and participate in extracurricular activities, all within a short timeframe. In such situations, individuals may feel overwhelmed, anxious, or fatigued, impacting their overall well-being and performance.
To cope with role conflict and role strain, individuals may employ various strategies. One common approach is prioritization, where individuals determine which roles or responsibilities are most important at a given time and allocate their resources accordingly (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964). Time management and organization skills can also be crucial in helping individuals balance their multiple roles, ensuring that they can effectively allocate time and energy to each responsibility (Claessens, Van Eerde, Rutte, & Roe, 2004).
Another strategy involves setting boundaries and learning to say “no” when necessary (Ashforth, Kreiner, & Fugate, 2000). By doing so, individuals can avoid taking on too many responsibilities, which may lead to role strain or conflict. Additionally, seeking support from friends, family members, or colleagues can help individuals navigate the complexities of their various roles, providing guidance, encouragement, and assistance when needed (Thoits, 1995).
Failing to manage role conflict and role strain effectively can have negative consequences on individuals’ mental and physical health, as well as their relationships and overall life satisfaction (Pearlin, 1983). Prolonged stress and tension may lead to anxiety, depression, and even burnout, ultimately affecting an individual’s ability to perform their roles successfully.
Societal changes and evolving norms can impact the roles that individuals play and the ways they navigate role conflict and role strain. For instance, the increasing prevalence of dual-income households and shifting gender norms have transformed traditional family roles, leading to new challenges and expectations for both men and women (Bianchi & Milkie, 2010). Moreover, advances in technology have blurred the lines between work and personal life, making it increasingly difficult for individuals to separate their roles and maintain a healthy work-life balance (Chesley, 2005).
In conclusion, understanding and addressing role conflict and role strain are essential for maintaining mental and physical well-being, fostering healthy relationships, and achieving overall life satisfaction. By employing effective coping strategies and adapting to societal changes, individuals can successfully navigate the complexities of their various roles and responsibilities.
Summary
Sociologists Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann suggest that society is formed through habitualization, where repeated actions become patterns, and institutionalization, where norms and conventions become embedded. W.I. Thomas’s “Thomas theorem” and Robert K. Merton’s “self-fulfilling prophecy” propose that people’s perception of reality influences their behavior and can even make a false belief come true. Symbolic interactionists analyze how people interpret symbols in everyday interactions, like language and gestures, reflecting our values and contributing to the social construction of reality.
Sociologists define status as a combination of responsibilities and benefits associated with a person’s rank and role in society. Status can be ascribed, assigned to you without your choice, or achieved, earned through your actions and choices. Role refers to the expected behavior of someone holding a particular status. Role strain occurs when the demands of a role become overwhelming, while role conflict occurs when one or more of their roles have contradictory expectations. The roles we take on in our lives significantly impact our decisions and shape our identities.
Erving Goffman’s dramaturgy proposes that people are like actors on a stage, performing different roles in various situations. Impression management helps us create the desired image of ourselves in different situations. The setting, similar to a stage in a play, also plays a significant role in our behavior. Goffman’s ideas expand on Charles Cooley’s concept of the looking-glass self, where our sense of self is built upon how we believe others perceive us.
Balancing multiple roles and statuses may lead to role conflict and role strain. Role conflict occurs when the expectations and demands associated with one role conflict with those of another role, while role strain refers to the tension and stress experienced within a single role due to overwhelming expectations and demands. Coping strategies include prioritization, time management, setting boundaries, seeking support, and adapting to societal changes. Failing to manage role conflict and role strain effectively can have negative consequences on individuals’ mental and physical health, relationships, and overall life satisfaction.
Regardless of the theoretical perspective, the sociological view of the nature of reality is that it is, at least in large part, socially constructed.
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Key Terms
dramaturgy, habitualization, institutionalization, self-fulfilling prophecy, status, role, achieved status, ascribed status, role performance, looking-glass self, role conflict, role strain, prioritization, time management, setting boundaries, support, societal changes, evolving norms, dual-income households, shifting gender norms, work-life balance, symbolic interactionism, symbols, impression management, W.I. Thomas’s theorem.
References and Further Reading
Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge. Anchor Books.
Merton, R. K. (1948). The self-fulfilling prophecy. Antioch Review, 8(2), 193-210.
Thomas, W. I., & Thomas, D. S. (1928). The child in America: Behavior problems and programs. Alfred A. Knopf.
Merton, R. K. (1957). The Role-Set: Problems in Sociological Theory. British Journal of Sociology, 8(2), 106-120.
Cooley, C. H. (1902). Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Scribner’s.
Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday Anchor Books.
Ashforth, B. E., Kreiner, G. E., & Fugate, M. (2000). All in a day’s work: Boundaries and micro role transitions. Academy of Management Review, 25(3), 472-491.
Bianchi, S. M., & Milkie, M. A. (2010). Work and family research in the first decade of the 21st century. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(3), 705-725.
Chesley, N. (2005). Blurring boundaries? Linking technology use, spillover, individual distress, and family satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67(5), 1237-1248.
Claessens, B. J., Van Eerde, W., Rutte, C. G., & Roe, R. A. (2004). Planning, prioritizing, and execution of multiple tasks. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16(4), 557-575.
Cooley, C. H. (1902). Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Scribner’s.
Goode, W. J. (1960). A theory of role strain. American Sociological Review, 25(4), 483-496.
Kahn, R. L., Wolfe, D. M., Quinn, R. P., Snoek, J. D., & Rosenthal, R. A. (1964). Organizational Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguity. Oxford, England: John Wiley.
Merton, R. K. (1957). The role-set: Problems in sociological theory. The British Journal of Sociology, 8(2), 106-120.
Pearlin, L. I. (1983). Role strains and personal stress. In H. B. Kaplan (Ed.), Psychosocial stress: Trends in theory and research (pp. 3-32). New York: Academic Press.
Thoits, P. A. (1995). Stress, coping, and social support processes: Where are we? What next? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 35, 53-79.
Modification History File Created: 05/07/2023 Last Modified: 05/12/2023
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