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Sociologists are people who study how people interact with each other in groups and how they behave in different situations. They use theories to help explain why things happen the way they do. A theory in sociology is an idea that helps explain something and can be tested to see if it is true.
One famous sociologist, Émile Durkheim, studied why people commit suicide. He found that people who belonged to different religions had different rates of suicide. Durkheim used his theory about social ties to understand why this might be. His work shows that theories can be very useful in sociology.
Sociologists use theories to understand different aspects of society. Some theories look at big groups of people and big issues, while others focus on individual relationships. There are also grand theories that try to explain how societies form and change over time. Sociological theory is always changing and growing, and new theories are often built on top of older ones.
In sociology, there are three main paradigms or big ideas: structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. These paradigms help sociologists understand how people interact with each other in society. Each one focuses on different aspects of social life, and all three are important for understanding society.
Functionalism Theory in Sociology
Functionalism, also known as structural-functional theory, is a way of looking at society as a structure made up of different parts that work together to meet the needs of people in that society. The idea of functionalism comes from English philosopher and biologist Hebert Spencer, who believed that society is like a human body. Just as different organs work together to keep a body healthy, different parts of society work together to keep society running. These parts are called social institutions and they include things like government, education, family, healthcare, religion, and the economy.
Émile Durkheim, another sociologist, used Spencer’s theory to explain how societies change and survive over time. Durkheim believed that society is a complex system of interrelated parts that work together to keep things stable. He said that society is held together by shared values, languages, and symbols, and to study society, sociologists must look at more than just individuals. They also need to consider social facts like laws, morals, values, religious beliefs, customs, fashion, and rituals, which all help to govern social life.
Alfred Radcliffe-Brown said that the function of any recurring activity is the part it plays in social life as a whole and its contribution to social stability and continuity. In a healthy society, all parts work together to maintain stability, which is called dynamic equilibrium by later sociologists such as Parsons.
Durkheim believed that social facts serve one or more functions within a society. For example, one function of a society’s laws may be to protect society from violence, while another is to punish criminal behavior. Robert Merton, another structural-functionalist, pointed out that social processes often have many functions. Manifest functions are the consequences of a social process that are sought or anticipated, while latent functions are the unsought consequences of a social process. For instance, the manifest function of a college education includes gaining knowledge, preparing for a career, and finding a good job. In contrast, the latent functions may include meeting new people, participating in extracurricular activities, or even finding a spouse or partner.
However, critics argue that the structural-functional theory can’t explain social change and is somewhat circular in nature. Also, dysfunctions may continue despite not serving a function, which contradicts the theory’s premise. Nevertheless, many sociologists still consider functionalism useful in some mid-level analyses.
Conflict Theory in Sociology
Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources (Marx, 1867). This perspective is a macro-level approach most identified with the writings of German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx, who saw society as being made up of individuals in different social classes who must compete for social, material, and political resources such as food and housing, employment, education, and leisure time. Social institutions like government, education, and religion reflect this competition in their inherent inequalities and help maintain the unequal social structure (Giddens, 2009).
Polish-Austrian sociologist Ludwig Gumplowicz expanded on Marx’s ideas by arguing that war and conquest are the basis of civilizations (Gumplowicz, 1883). He believed that cultural and ethnic conflicts led to states being identified and defined by a dominant group with power over other groups.
German sociologist Max Weber agreed with Marx but also believed that, in addition to economic inequalities, inequalities of political power and social structure cause conflict. Weber noted that different groups were affected differently based on education, race, and gender and that people’s reactions to inequality were moderated by class differences and rates of social mobility, as well as by perceptions about the legitimacy of those in power (Weber, 1922).
German sociologist Georg Simmel believed that conflict can help integrate and stabilize a society (Simmel, 1908). He said that the intensity of the conflict varies depending on the emotional involvement of the parties, the degree of solidarity within the opposing groups, and the clarity and limited nature of the goals. Simmel also showed that groups work to create internal solidarity, centralize power, and reduce dissent. Resolving conflicts can reduce tension and hostility and can pave the way for future agreements.
In the 1930s and 1940s, German philosophers, known as the Frankfurt School, developed critical theory as an elaboration on Marxist principles (Adorno, 1950). Critical theory is an expansion of conflict theory and is broader than just sociology, including other social sciences and philosophy. A critical theory attempts to address structural issues causing inequality; it must explain what’s wrong in the current social reality, identify the people who can make changes, and provide practical goals for social transformation.
More recently, inequality based on gender or race has been explained similarly and has identified institutionalized power structures that help maintain inequality between groups. Janet Saltzman Chafetz presented a model of feminist theory that attempts to explain the forces that maintain gender inequality as well as a theory of how such a system can be changed (Chafetz, 1990).
Just as structural functionalism was criticized for focusing too much on the stability of societies, conflict theory has been criticized because it tends to focus on conflict to the exclusion of recognizing stability. Many social structures are extremely stable or have gradually progressed over time rather than changing abruptly, as conflict theory would suggest (Giddens, 2009).
Symbolic Interactionism Theory in Sociology
Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that focuses on the relationships between individuals in a society. The theory suggests that communication, such as language and symbols, is how people make sense of their social world. Herman and Reynolds (1994) suggest that this perspective sees individuals as actively shaping the social world rather than just being acted upon. George Herbert Mead is considered a founder of symbolic interactionism, and his student Herbert Blumer coined the term and outlined its basic premises. Blumer suggested that humans interact with things based on meanings ascribed to those things, and the ascribed meaning of things comes from our interactions with others and society. The meanings of things are interpreted by a person when dealing with things in specific circumstances (Blumer, 1969).
Symbolic interactionism proposes that social scientists look for patterns of interaction between individuals, often involving one-on-one interactions. Studies that use the symbolic interactionist perspective are more likely to use qualitative research methods such as in-depth interviews or participant observation because they seek to understand the symbolic worlds in which research subjects live. The theory of constructivism is an extension of symbolic interaction theory that proposes that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be. We develop social constructs based on interactions with others, and those constructs that last over time are those that have meanings that are widely agreed upon or generally accepted by most within society (Charon, 1989).
Goffman used theater as an analogy for social interaction and recognized that people’s interactions showed patterns of cultural “scripts.” This led to the development of a technique called dramaturgical analysis (Goffman, 1959). Studies that use the symbolic interactionist perspective are often criticized because of the difficulty of remaining objective. Some critics also argue that the focus is too narrow, only examining symbolic interaction. Proponents of the theory, however, consider this to be one of its greatest strengths.
Contemporary Sociological Theory
Contemporary sociological theory has evolved from the foundational approaches of structural-functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Structural-functionalism was a dominant force after World War II, as sociologists saw society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet individuals’ biological and social needs. However, in the 1960s and 1970s, sociologists felt that structural-functionalism did not sufficiently explain the rapid social changes happening in the United States at that time.
As a result, conflict theory gained prominence as sociologists began to emphasize institutionalized social inequality. Critical theory, feminist theory, and critical race theory focused on creating social change through the application of sociological principles. The field saw a renewed emphasis on helping ordinary people understand sociology principles in the form of public sociology. These approaches recognized the importance of power and conflict in shaping social institutions and relationships.
Postmodern social theory, gaining acceptance in the late 1970s and early 1980s, attempts to look at society through an entirely new lens by rejecting previous macro-level attempts to explain social phenomena. It is a micro-level approach that looks at small, local groups and individual reality and emphasizes the importance of multiple perspectives and subjective interpretations. Postmodernism challenges the idea of objective truth and highlights the role of language and discourse in shaping our understanding of the world.
This growth in popularity coincides with the constructivist aspects of symbolic interactionism, which propose that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be through their interactions with others. Constructivism recognizes the role of social constructs in shaping our understanding of the world and the meanings we ascribe to social phenomena. By recognizing reality’s subjective and socially constructed nature, postmodern social theory and constructivism offer new ways of understanding society and social phenomena.
What Makes a Good Theory?
A good scientific theory typically consists of several key elements:
Explanation: A theory should provide a clear and coherent explanation for observed phenomena. It should be able to explain a wide range of observations and data, and it should be consistent with known facts.
Testability: A theory should be testable through observation or experimentation. It should make predictions that can be tested through empirical research, and those tests should be repeatable and falsifiable.
Parsimony: A theory should be simple and straightforward. It should not be unnecessarily complex, and it should not include extraneous assumptions or elements.
Scope: A theory should be able to explain a wide range of phenomena, and it should have broad applications across different contexts.
Predictive Power: A theory should make specific and accurate predictions about future observations or experimental outcomes. These predictions should be testable and should help to refine or develop the theory further.
Consistency: A theory should be internally consistent, meaning that its elements should be logically coherent and compatible with one another. It should also be consistent with other established theories and facts in its field.
Fruitfulness: A theory should be able to generate new research questions, hypotheses, and predictions. It should inspire further research and discovery, and it should be able to help advance scientific knowledge in its field.
Overall, a good scientific theory should provide a clear and parsimonious explanation for observed phenomena that can be tested through empirical research, and that has broad applications and predictive power.
Conclusions
Social theories also allow us to understand and explain social phenomena by providing a framework for studying and analyzing different aspects of society. Sociologists use theories to explain patterns of behavior, social relations, and social institutions. Through theory, sociologists can identify the causes and effects of social phenomena and provide insights into how society works.
One of the most famous sociologists who used theory to explain social phenomena was Émile Durkheim. Durkheim studied the phenomenon of suicide and found that suicide rates varied among different religions. He used his theory of social ties to understand why this might be. His work showed that theories can be very useful in sociology.
There are different types of social theories, and each theory emphasizes different aspects of social life. The three main paradigms or big ideas in sociology are structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Each of these paradigms helps sociologists understand how people interact with each other in society. Structural functionalism views society as a structure made up of different parts that work together to meet the needs of people in that society. Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources. Symbolic interactionism focuses on the relationships between individuals in a society and how people make sense of their social world.
Sociological theory is always changing and growing, and new theories are often built on top of older ones. Contemporary sociological theory has evolved from the foundational approaches of structural-functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Structural-functionalism was a dominant force after World War II, as sociologists saw society as a structure with interrelated parts designed to meet individuals’ biological and social needs. However, in the 1960s and 1970s, sociologists felt that structural-functionalism did not sufficiently explain the rapid social changes happening in the United States at that time.
As a result, conflict theory gained prominence as sociologists began to emphasize institutionalized social inequality. Critical theory, feminist theory, and critical race theory focused on creating social change through the application of sociological principles. The field saw a renewed emphasis on helping ordinary people understand sociology principles in the form of public sociology. These approaches recognized the importance of power and conflict in shaping social institutions and relationships.
Postmodern social theory, gaining acceptance in the late 1970s and early 1980s, attempts to look at society through an entirely new lens by rejecting previous macro-level attempts to explain social phenomena. It is a micro-level approach that looks at small, local groups and individual reality and emphasizes the importance of multiple perspectives and subjective interpretations. Postmodernism challenges the idea of objective truth and highlights the role of language and discourse in shaping our understanding of the world.
In conclusion, social theory is essential for sociologists to understand and explain social phenomena. By providing a framework for studying and analyzing different aspects of society, theories allow us to identify patterns of behavior, social relations, and social institutions. The three main paradigms in sociology, structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism, help sociologists understand how people interact with each other in society. Contemporary sociological theory has evolved from these foundational approaches, recognizing the importance of power and conflict in shaping social institutions and relationships and emphasizing the role of multiple perspectives and subjective interpretations in shaping our understanding of the world.
Summary
Social theory is a way for sociologists to understand and explain social phenomena by providing a framework for studying different aspects of society. Theories can help identify patterns of behavior, social relations, and social institutions. Émile Durkheim was a famous sociologist who used his theory of social ties to understand why suicide rates varied among different religions.
There are three main paradigms in sociology: structural functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Structural functionalism views society as a structure made up of different parts that work together to meet the needs of people in that society. Conflict theory looks at society as a competition for limited resources. Symbolic interactionism focuses on the relationships between individuals in a society and how people make sense of their social world.
Contemporary sociological theory has evolved from the foundational approaches of structural-functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism. Critical theory, feminist theory, and critical race theory focused on creating social change through the application of sociological principles. The postmodern social theory challenges the idea of objective truth and emphasizes the role of language and discourse in shaping our understanding of the world.
In conclusion, theory in sociology is essential for sociologists to understand and explain social phenomena. By providing a framework for studying and analyzing different facets, theory in sociology allows us to identify patterns of behavior, social relations, and social institutions. The different paradigms in sociology provide different perspectives on how people interact with each other in society, and contemporary sociological theory continues to evolve to keep pace with changes in society.
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Key Terms
Émile Durkheim, Hebert Spencer, interaction, idea, test, social classes, social facts, social institutions, social ties, social values, social symbols, sociology, sociologists, structural-functional theory, functionalism, theory, conflict theory, Karl Marx, suicide, government, education, family, healthcare, religion, economy, interrelated parts
References and Further Reading
Adorno, T. W. (1950). The authoritarian personality. Harper.
Blumer, H. (1969). Symbolic interactionism: Perspective and method. Prentice-Hall.
Chafetz, J. S. (1990). Gender equity: An integrated theory of stability and change. Sage.
Giddens, A. (2009). Sociology (6th ed.). Polity Press.
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Doubleday.
Gumplowicz, L. (1883). The outbreak of war and its causes. Open Court.
Herman, E. S., & Reynolds, L. T. (1994). Symbolic interactionism: A social structural version. University of California Press.
Marx, K. (1867). Das Kapital: Kritik der politischen Ökonomie. Verlag von Otto Meisner.
Simmel, G. (1908). Conflict and the web of group affiliations. Free Press.
Weber, M. (1922). Economy and society: An outline of interpretive sociology. University of California Press.
Learn More
On Other Sites
“Conflict Theory.” (n.d.). In Encyclopedia of Sociology.
“Critical Race Theory.” (n.d.). In New Dictionary of the History of Ideas.
“Frankfurt School.” (n.d.). In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences.
“Functionalism and Structuralism.” (n.d.). In Encyclopedia of Sociology.
“Goffman, Erving.” (n.d.). In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences.
“Paradigm.” (n.d.). In New Dictionary of the History of Ideas.
“Philosophy of Science.” (n.d.). In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences.
“Symbolic Interaction Theory.” (n.d.). In Encyclopedia of Sociology.
Modification History File Created: 05/07/2023 Last Modified: 05/12/2023
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